Translation workspace
Try a study reference
Based on Avery Liu and Theavy So’s RuKaiKai study. This prototype includes 1,252 clean pairs from the supplied searchable word list, 10 published sentence pairs, and 12 page-checked rule cards from Ferrell. Exact matches work without a model. The word list and Ferrell source stay separate so the app does not invent provenance.
Speech status
English preview only
Paiwan playback is disabled until a verified Paiwan voice is connected.
Definitive historical reference
Raleigh Ferrell, Paiwan Dictionary
The full Paiwan–English section, abridged English index, and addenda have been preserved by source page for structured review. Ferrell says the dictionary is incomplete and that its English glosses may be narrower than a Paiwan stem’s meaning. Results should therefore be read as sourced evidence, not a universal standard for every Paiwan variety.
Checked grammar guide
Unmarked entries are Kulalau forms. W, OD, Q, and T mark western, other-dialect, southern, and Tjuabar evidence. Ferrell calls the work incomplete and warns that an English gloss may be narrower than the Paiwan stem.
PDF pages 8, 10
Part 1 groups senses, derived forms, examples, and cross-references under roots. A cross-listing is not proof that every listed analysis is still productive. Part 2 is only an abridged English index.
PDF pages 9–10
a marks an equational relationship, nua a genitive or partitive relationship, and tua a relationship that is neither. Paiwan does not directly join two nouns as a compound.
PDF pages 22–23
The four categories are Agent, Object/Goal/Patient, Referent, and Instrument/Cause/Motivation/Origin. The verb does not inflect for person, number, or gender, and not every verb has all four forms.
PDF pages 39–45
An expressed focused noun phrase takes a; an agent in a non-Agent-Focus clause takes nua; other nonfocused noun phrases generally take tua. Locatives can use i.
PDF pages 28, 41
Yes/no questions can differ from statements only by intonation. In a wh-question, the role being asked about determines focus; changing focus changes the question's meaning.
PDF pages 19, 43–44
Ferrell distinguishes neutral, continuative, projective/future, subjunctive, and perfective forms. AF -u is more peremptory, OF -i is the common/polite imperative, and RF -an is less common.
PDF pages 45–46
ini negates doing, while neka negates existence. iru plus a subjunctive marks definite negative future. m-aya forms a negative command, with sa making it less peremptory.
PDF pages 22, 28, 46–47
ki- and pa- tend toward intentional or directed action; ma- toward an affected, passive-like, or nonvolitional state; se- toward an unexpected event. pa- is not a universal causative.
PDF pages 47–50
Common patterns repeat the initial consonant plus a, or repeat the stem without its final consonant. Verbs usually gain continuation or intensity; other words may gain diminutive, affectionate, or plural meaning.
PDF pages 38–39
Postverbal noun phrases can move without changing meaning if their construction markers remain attached. A noun phrase can move before the predicate for emphasis.
PDF pages 47
Final w becomes v before a suffix, Agent Focus m becomes n after p, b, or v, and Object Focus -en has a vowel-conditioned -in form. Vowel contraction and optional schwa also occur.
PDF pages 20–21